COACHING LEADING CHANGE - Elio Locatelli, IAAF Development Department

IAAF has recently set up a specific Coaches Commission, thus recognizing the full integration of the coaches in the [AAF family and their high professional level. The focus of the Commission is mainly on coaches education, communication, development and recognition and accreditation of coaches. This growing institutional recognition requires on the other hand that coaches follow more and more this trend towards more professional operations, especially as for their ability to work in a team structure, which can better satisfy the needs of modern sport and talented athletes. Team processes must be optimized and the collaboration with different professional profiles has to be improved. Finally it is discussed the current state of the IAAF Coaches Education and Certification System which is structured in 3 Levels. So far, more than 10.000 Level I coaches and more then 1.000 Level 11 have been educated. In spite of this success, the introduction of a Level III course if facing some problems, whose resolution is now the goal of a specific Working Group. On the basis of the results of the Working Group the Level III course will be set up in collaboration with an University and will target three different specialization: Elite Coach, Chief Coach, Professional Development Coach. Access to this course will be made possible to coaches certified at level 11 at the national level through a specific system of equivalence and recognition.

MANAGING THE ATHLETES'LONG TERM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS - TOMORROW BEGINS TODAY - Frank Dick, President EACA

The purpose of this work is to provide useful information to develop athletes and to support their aspiration to fulfill their potential in their peak performance years. The process of the career development of the athletes must reflect attention to the welfare of athletes and ensure a proper balance between performance challenges, personal development and result focus. The peak performance years have shifted to an older age range than was previously the case. At the same time the age range has stretched with an increase in numbers of athletes 18-22 years. The level of performance required to achieve world-class performance will continue to rise and this requires to build backwards towards junior and pre-junior years. The most critical years are those immediately after the success in European/ World Junior competition. Athletes in these years require motivation, support to continue, and opportunity to progress. Support programs may include a range of inputs from e-services through to physical resources, interventions on athlete career planning, socioeconomic counseling and technical advice.

After the youth championship period, continuous progress can be facilitated by support package advice, monitoring and follow up programs. A similar approach is also outlined for the development years (13-17), where the set up of a dedicated database and development targets/awards is suggested. For the foundation years the main goal is to support motor skills development and motivation, through play/fun athletics activities, partnership with other sports and proper education of instructors. The progression from foundation to peak performance must be managed as one continuous process by competent persons able to afford the appropriate high quality of process management.

FACTORS LIMITING MAXIMAL PERFORMANCES IN AEROBIC EXERCISE
Pietro Enrico di Prampera, Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie biomediche, Universitci di Udine

This paper is devoted to a discussion of the energetics of middle distance running, showing that the individual best performances can be predicted with fair accuracy as described below. I) The metabolic power (Er) required to cover any given distance d in the time tp is the product of the energy cost of running per unit of distance (Cr) and the speed (v=d/tp): Er = Cr d/tp. Therefore, II) the shortest time (fastest speed) over that distance is achieved when Er is equal to the maximal metabolic power of the Sub*t (Ermax). III) Between 50 s and 15 min, Ermax decreases with increasing exercise duration (te): Ermax = f(te), the precise function being defined analytically by the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and the amount of energy derived from complete exploitation of anaerobic stores (AnS). Hence, IV) best performance times for any given distance and runner can be obtained as the time values for which Ermax = Er, provided that Cr, V02max and AnS are known. Cr during track running was determined on 16 amateur and 24 elite middle distance runners on whom V02max was also measured and AnS assumed from published data. For both groups and for distances between 1.0 and 5.0 km, best performance times were slightly shorter (4.1 and 1.6 % on average), but not significantly different, than actual best times. It is concluded that the above approach is a coherent and useful description of the energetics of middle distance running.

THE MILAN EXPERIENCE - Daniele Tognaccini, Milan F.C.

The project "Milan Lab", started in summer 2001, is illustrated. Its purpose is to create a system to evaluate soccer players' physical fitness and their training needs according to indicators parameters and objective data. Milanlab is the centre of scientific research, created by A.C. Milan and operational since March 2002. Its research approach has a "systemic" character. The club and the soccer team are considered as an "integrated system" formed by different components, whose interaction and efficiency determine its global performance. For this reason, the methodology of Milanlab is based on a constant data collection in each pertinent domain, and on their integration and correlation. Specific research protocols have been set up to keep and to restore the efficiency of the system. The centre makes use of the most advanced and sophisticated software to collect and process information, in three main areas: structural, biochemical and mental domain, which altogether define the framework of athletes' psychophysical equilibrium. The results, obtained until now, are decisively encouraging and let foresee a great margin of development, in relation both to injuries prevention and performance optimization.

FROM SEVILLE TO ATHENS: THE LONG WALK OF IVANO BRUGNETTI
Antonio La Torre, Faculty of Exercise Sciences, University of Milan

lvano Brugnetti's success in the 20 km men race walking at the recent Olympic Games (Athens 2004) has aroused interest and discussion among the coaches The Italian athlete, World Champion in the 50km in Seville (1999), after four seasons with no good performances, and being absent from the main international competitions, faced the difficult passage from the 50 to the 20 km. If the success in Seville represented the natural outcome, even if surprising, of the global condition matured in the previous preparation, the reiterated following failures led the athlete in a "Black Hole" of embarrassing irresolution. Though his unchanged physical fitness, Brugnetti's psychic state represented an inexplicable dilemma also for respected (well-known) teams of sport psychologists. In spite of the positive confirmations during the competition the potential emerged during training. From 2000 to 2003 in all the international competitions on the distance of 50km the athlete in question always dropped out between the 30th and the 37th km.

The decision to change the distance of the competition only apparently was against the trend. Historically the tendency is to pass from the shorter discipline to the longer one. For Brugnetti, the main reason of the passage to the shorter competition was due especially to difficulties of "mental" kind, to bear the competition intensity all along the distance (50 km). The 'challenge" on the 20 km has anyway solid physiological and technical presuppositions:
- the easiness of THE TECHNICAL ACTION of Ivano Brugnetti;
- his high BASIC SPEED (times on the 5,10km);
- high V02max (about 70 ml ? min-1 ? kg-1);
- Low Energy Cost

Physical examination in the laboratory always showed a high uptake (absorption) of oxygen, which, according to the studies of the Franco-Canadian researcher (1994), coincides with good threshold levels and with a high index of endurance: this is a capacity enabling essentially the athlete to "exploit" positively all the oxygen stored in his aerobic tank. His percentage of oxygen consumption (rate between the effectively consumed oxygen and his V02max) is technically very high. He is able to exploit "all the horses" of his motor, a turbo motor with diesel consumptions. The athlete, as a matter of fact, stands out for his capacity of storing oxygen and for his optimal peripheral components, but also for his basic speed. The consciousness of his speed in the rapidity of the technical action, re-proposed the training on particular sessions of power. The training in race walking has always been founded on the following axes:
- there are very strict relationships between the different competition distances, the Olympic ones and the non Olympic ones (from the 5 to the 50km);
- privileging the "qualitative" aspect of training;
- introducing further stimula oriented toward "power" on a specific already high endurance.

Other elements of Brugnetti's training, which always supported him in the technique, were:
- the intensification of the neuromuscular work (through diversified forms of uphill training);
- altitude training carried out at intensities that are very similar to the ones on the sea level,
- the constant control of training both on the physiological parameters (incremental tests, thresholds, energy costs and basal metabolism) and on the biomechanical ones (films, special photographic sequences, posture evaluations, proprioceptive re-education) to improve and adapt the efficiency of the technical action.

During the 40 months of lacking results, which are not appropriate to Ivano Brugnetti's level, he never stopped to improve during training. The mass of work was always important in the years. Having worked hardly gave him the psychological certainty that he would never drop out in the shorter distance. The overcoming of the already mentioned "Black Hole" in the period 2000-2003 happened thanks to a strength of purpose, to a continuous dialogue athlete/coach and to a constantly environment solidly behind him also toward his negative performances. Another datum of technical significance was the introduction of a RESISTENT base with a clear improvement of the POWER. These two combined aspects permitted to him to express himself at the maximum level on the 20km.

The future work provides, as it was always meant, a strict relationship between the experience on the field and the laboratory research: the coach, putting his empirical knowledge at disposal of science, finds confirmations, discoveries new solutions and brings some of them to the multidisciplinary research. The "Evidence Based Coaching", the training based on the scientific evidences of its effectiveness, should aim really at this reciprocal collaboration that is profitable for both parts. So which are the next training studies? The methodology of training could realize new programs in altitude, or find out further integrations between endurance works and power works, in conclusion it could insist, in a specific sense, on the accuracy of the technical action (indicative of a better energy cost). The debate is open.

DISCIPLINE GROUP SESSIONS

SPRINT AND HURDLES
(A) Technical and statistical trends through the Olympic Cycle 2000-2004; Statistical notes on the 200m performances of the all time best athletes

Carlo Vittori
The author takes into consideration not only time performances in sprint races, but also best performances at 200m, in order to underline the specific differences with regard to 100m. With this purpose, he makes reference to the difference in time, as resistance index. Performances of every top athlete are analyzed, suggesting topics to be developed (speed).

SPRINT AND HURDLES
(B) Review of training and coaching principles as applied to disciplines. Sprinter's control of training

Carlo Vittori
This is a delicate topic in the athlete's preparation, providing for a yearly cycle with a preparatory period of 5 cycles. The control tests have the aim of verifying programs, progress, of checking of training purposes and the degree of the improvements in comparison with the planned performances. There is a purpose of verifying the program to check if the athlete's condition is consistent with the predetermined prevision. The tests, referred to the work carried out in a given period, are described according to four groups:
- tests for the acyclic expression of strength;
- tests for the cyclic expression of strength;
- tests of rapidity;
- specific running tests.
For every group of tests the modality of execution and the evaluation purposes, which have to be obtained, are described, in total 12 tests. For each of them the parameters, such as reference standards of specific performances in sprinting races, are also given: the reading of tests results will enable to intervene or not on some capacities, which will permit the support to the performances in the competitive period. Some tests provide for the utilization of instrumentations; for others, the references are the classic field tests.

SPRINT AND HURDLES
(C) Learning systems and teaching methods for young athletes as applied to disciplines
Principles regarding differences between sports activity of talented youth and adult champions

Carlo Vittori
Training activities of a young talent are totally diversified from the ones of an already realized champion. In particular, the lecture deals with the description of the characteristics concerning young athletes' training:
- the activity of training is highly characterized by educational purposes;
- work load have to take into account the quantitative aspects, but especially the qualitative ones;
- a very rich use of training means and methods has to be planned;
- a particular stress has to be put on the mental involvement in the practiced activities (initiation);
- it is necessary to establish the full respect of the different phases in the physical development;
- one of the main objectives is represented by the learning of technical skills and of their relative mastery during competitions;
- the organization of training, permitting the full realization of the presented elements.

Anyhow, the main differentiation consists of the fact that the young talent has to build his own future, while the fully developed athlete has to manage himself in the present.

SPRINT AND HURDLES
(D) Coaching method from technique to strategies in working with high performance athletes as applied to disciplines
Muscular strength training to run fast

Carlo Vittori
The relationship between the level of strength and the possibility of running fast is very evident and shows particular specificities. The complex articulation and organization of the training actions make this topic very original, such as to involve all the expressions of strength, even though in a different measure.
Training muscular strength in sprinting races has the aim of increasing the level of strength maximum peaks in the rapidity of its expression, influencing more the nervous component rather than muscular hypertrophy.
According to this statement, the Author expounds the different methods, with particular reference on the action of lower limbs extensor muscles, using the following subdivision of strength expressions:
- maximum strength
- explosive strength
- "explosive elastic" strength
- reflex eccentric strength.
The most appropriate drills in relation to the aimed objective are described, in particular three exercises, which are proposed in different ways, through the modulation of the load, of the modalities of execution and of their organization in the training cycles.

ENDURANCE
(A) Technical and statistical trends through the Olympic Cycle 2000 - 2004
Lactate dynamics training

Peter Thompson
Endurance training changed a lot in the 70 years. The author wants to outline the current situation, through an historical review, which is associated with the report of his own evolution as coach in these disciplines. The first turning point occurred when the author understood that the key point was the training at varying paces, after observing the behavior in competition of the elite Kenyan athletes, who did not care about keeping an even pace, generally considered by the physiologists as the best way for producing the fastest times. The author reviews various kinds of training starting from
the "Kenyan intervals" to get to more recent Lactate Dynamics Training, citing also the various coaches, who contributed to his professional evolution. A very important variable to consider is the recovery, which often is performed at a very slow pace. In 1996 the work of the physiologist George Brooks and his concept of the "Lactate Shuttle" offered a valid scientific explanation to the effectiveness of fartlek and of the LDT in endurance disciplines. KEY POINT: Lactate Dynamics Training, then Lactate Tolerance Training!

ENDURANCE
(B) Review of training and coaching principles as applied to disciplines. Review of the metabolic preparation of endurance athletes

Peter Thompson
Some aspects of energy physiology are studied in detail on the basis of the most recent researches; in particular it is highlighted how the lactate is a dynamic metabolite produced at rest and during exercise. The "Lactate Shuttle" provides a description of the movement and use of lactate within muscles, the systemic circulation and the liver. Being V02max a poor predictor of performance, the concepts of vVO2max and tlimvVO2max are introduced and defined. The three energy systems and their basis are analysed as interdependent. The lactate system is analysed. Its limiting factor is not, as it has been frequently stated, the lactate accumulation, but the cells acidification provoked by the hydrogen ions. The author considers obsolete the term "anaerobic threshold" and prefers Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA) or Lactate Threshold, indicating the moment when the dynamic equilibrium between production and removal of lactate has been upset and representing a better predictor of performance. In conclusion a table of the percentage of contribution of the three energy systems to the various running disciplines is proposed.

ENDURANCE
(C) Learning systems and teaching methods for young athletes as applied to disciplines.

Peter Thompson
The role, importance and development of two basic components of the young endurance athletes'
performance:
o the ability to run naturally with an awareness of the rhythm
o a functional core strength, that is essential to move with a natural posture, with efficiency and control
It is necessary to build carefully these aspects in the training process, since it has become more and more difficult to find young athletes, having good motor requirements especially with reference to these components. As far as rhythm is concerned, the attention is focused on fartlek, with a selection of structured sessions. As regards strength, the various kinds of contraction are schematically presented, analysing their function and importance in relation to the performance model and the limiting factors. Examples of exercises are illustrated, with a particular stress on the importance of training isometric and elastic components of strength.

JUMPS
(A) Technical and statistical trends through the Olympic Cycle 2000 - 2004 Statistical Trends in the Jumps through the Olympic Cycles 1996-2004

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
The author analyses the trend in the jumping performance of top level athletes (1st place; 8th place; average 1-3 and 1-8) in the Olympic Cycles (1996-2004). The trends are described for Men and Women Long Jump, Men and Women Triple Jump; Men and Women High Jump and Men and Women Pole Vault. Finally the change in performance in each event is reported for the period 2000-2004 and the percentage of women performance compared to men is illustrated.

Technical model and individual adaptation

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
The origin of the technical models is questioned: do they derive from the technique of the world record holder, from the technique of top athletes in general or from the specific biomechanical analysis of the event. An additional challenge is constituted by the degree of influence of specific factors (i.e. Age, Gender, Body constitution (especially in the high jump), Physical preconditions (speed, strength) in the choice and implementation of the model. To allow an optimized solution of the problem specific strategies are suggested that include:
o the identification of key elements that are identical in top athletes;
o the analysis of the contribution of the personal style to performance;
o the analysis of the possible negative effects of the personal style on the performance.

JUMPS
(B) Review of training and coaching principles as applied to disciplines. Individual responses to defined training loads

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
The goal of this work is to identify typical individual responses to training loads and their time delay in top athletes. Questions range from the individual or general nature of the responses to defined training loads in top athletes, the existence of a typical profile in time delay of adaptations and of typical training contents that can be considered ideal for each athlete. In the study 10 female high jumpers of the national team with performance between 1.87m and 2.01m have been observed during three weeks training camps and in some cases for 6 months daily training. The analysis of the results identified significant variations in responses to training loads and also for adaptation delays. This procedure allowed the determination of individual profiles for 8 of the 10 jumpers. These findings were to plan the content of the last training sessions before competition (full article)

Application of jumps off a short approach

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
Jumpers train very often with shorter approaches compared to those that they use in regular competition. Sometimes these kinds of jumps amounts to more that 50% of the global jumping volume, because they allow higher training volumes and better concentration on the details. In spite of this, the good performance obtained in these jumps is often not matched by the real competitive result that often falls short of the expectations. This is due to different reasons including: basic change of take-off, basic change of time program, improper reactive strength pattern. Some indications are finally given to solve this problem: the overall number of these jumps must be reduced, the speed component has always to be respected and jumps with full run-up must be carried out even in the preparatory period.

JUMPS
(C) Learning systems and teaching methods for young athletes as applied to disciplines.
From Junior Age to Top Performance

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
The author tries to answer a basic general question about the importance and the meaning of the competitive performance obtained in the junior age for the future career progression. Particular attention is paid to the further progression of performance of World Junior Championship (WJC) finalists, and to specific regional or 'block" differences. To answer these questions a huge database of 895 male finalists of WJC between 1986 and 1996 has been set up and the career progression till 2002 has been analyzed (with reference both to personal records and success in elite competitions). The general analysis showed that 64% showed further progression of performance; 26 % made the final in WC and/or OG and the personal best was obtained after 3-5 years. North American and Caribbean athletes showed a higher frequency of further progression, while Africa and Australia led the number of Olympic finalists. Regional differences are also reported in the time needed to reach the Olympic final, the personal best and also in the percentage of performance improvement. Throwers show a more significant improvement, while jumpers reach more often the Olympic final. These trends have however changed in the latest period: the mean percentage of progression dropped from 8% in 1986 finalists to 6% in 1996 finalists, and the time needed to reach the personal best dropped from 5 to 3 years. Amongst the medalists 83,1 % showed further progression of performance. 84 % of them had a ranking in the top 100 in the following years. The respective results for the non-medalists: 58,2 % with further progression; 45,4 % in the top 100.

Early specialization

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
A recurrent phenomenon is frequently observed in numerous young athletes who are quite successful in junior championships but do not have further improvement of performance after that age. This is often also a cause of dropouts. On this respect, the orientation of the system of competition is extremely important in order to avoid this problem. It should include local competitions (till 13 years), regional (till 15) and from 16 year based on combined events, with National competitions. The strategy should therefore be oriented to the search of talent for event groups through specific Event Group combined events

JUMPS
(D) Coaching method from technique to strategies in working with high performance athletes as applied to disciplines.

Periodization of Training - facts and fiction

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
A study has been conducted in 1996-99 on 3360 Athletes, who were among the Best 20 in 14 events (not including middle/long distance) in the United States and Germany. Questions asked were 1) How many athletes reach their season best at the major competition? 2) Are there differences between USA - GER? 3) Are there any block specific differences? 4) Are there any differences between athletes in national and international competitions? Main criteria of observation included the Average deviation of Seasonal best in main competitions (National or International Championship), the distribution of the seasonal best, the percentage of athletes who reach their best result at the day of the main competition or within three days; the percentage of athletes within a I %-range from the seasonal best. The results of the study show that around 10% of the season bests were reached on the occasion of the final, 14,2 % (GER) and 19,4 % (USA) if we include the preliminary rounds and the semi-final. 1/3 of German athletes reach their best after the main competition, and 113 of Americans more than 6 weeks before. A specific analysis of the German Team at the 2004 Olympic games is also illustrated.

Changes in training before major competition

Wolfgang Ritzdorf
The preparation before major competition is critical for the achievement of top level performance. In most of the cases, the main emphasis is placed on the variation of volume and intensity. Coaches should try to find additional possibilities to tune training with competition. Essential questions on this respect concern the possibility to simulate competition in training and the time span during which the athlete should work on details. Different ideas are expressed to optimise pre-competition sessions, especially as far as the evaluation of the jumps carried out in training. ideas on technical modifications are also expressed: technical changes should not be introduced in the last two weeks before the competition, when it is necessary to optimise the available level of skills. It is also necessary to focus training on rhythm and feeling instead of details. Also is useful to introduce limitations and disturb factors, following examples of other sports, for example through the introduction of time limits per jump in certain training sessions or other elements of disturb. The change of the position of the coach is also recommended.